African Culinary Traditions Recognised by UNESCO

African Culinary Traditions Recognised by UNESCO: Why, When and How Recognition Matters

Living Food Knowledge, Community Identity and Cultural Heritage Across Africa

Introduction

African culinary heritage is sustained through cultivation, harvesting, processing, preparation, sharing, memory and teaching across generations. Recipes are part of this heritage, but they are not the whole story. Traditional food knowledge also includes the skills of farmers and processors, the judgement of cooks, the organisation of communal meals, relationships with the environment and the social meanings attached to eating together.

UNESCO does not ordinarily recognise a dish as a commercial product or declare one recipe to be the only authentic version. It recognises the living knowledge, skills and social practices that communities transmit from one generation to another.

This article examines five prominent African culinary traditions inscribed on UNESCO’s Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity:

Tradition	Country or countries	Year of inscription	Principal focus of recognition
Nsima	Malawi	2017	Preparation, serving, communal consumption and associated customs
Couscous	Algeria, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia	2020	Production, preparation, consumption and shared cultural knowledge
Ceebu Jën	Senegal	2021	Culinary knowledge, social practices and Senegalese identity
Attiéké	Côte d’Ivoire	2024	Production skills, transmission and community livelihoods
Koshary	Egypt	2025	Preparation, consumption and associated everyday practices

These are prominent examples rather than a complete account of African food-related heritage on UNESCO’s lists. Other recognised African elements are connected to agriculture, drinks, hospitality, ceremonies, environmental knowledge and food production.

The article explains what UNESCO recognition means, how nomination works, why these traditions qualified and why safeguarding them matters to African communities on the continent and in the diaspora.

What UNESCO recognition means
UNESCO recognition and geographical indications
The five inscription criteria
How the nomination process works
Nsima
Couscous
Ceebu Jën
Attiéké
Koshary
Significance for African diaspora communities
Evidence from the Enfield African Heritage Food Project
Challenges, opportunities and future trends
Frequently asked questions

What UNESCO Recognition Means

UNESCO recognition is frequently misunderstood. It does not normally:

grant legal ownership of a dish to one country;
certify one official recipe;
prevent communities elsewhere from preparing or selling the food;
create automatic copyright, trademark or patent protection;
declare that one culinary tradition is superior to another.

UNESCO recognises an element of intangible cultural heritage. Under the 2003 Convention, this includes practices, representations, expressions, knowledge and skills that communities recognise as part of their cultural heritage.

Such heritage is passed between generations and continually recreated in response to history, migration, social change, the environment and interaction with nature. It is therefore living and adaptable rather than frozen in one historical form.

Inscription on the Representative List raises international visibility and encourages safeguarding. It does not necessarily mean that the tradition is endangered. UNESCO maintains a separate List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding for practices facing serious threats to their continued viability.

UNESCO adopted the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage on 17 October 2003. It entered into force on 20 April 2006 after the thirtieth instrument of ratification had been deposited (UNESCO, 2003; UNESCO, 2006).

UNESCO Recognition and Geographical Indications Are Different

UNESCO inscription should not be confused with geographical-indication protection.

UNESCO recognises cultural practices, community knowledge and methods of transmission. A geographical indication is a legal and commercial mechanism associated with a product whose qualities, reputation or production methods are connected to a particular geographical area.

Attiéké illustrates this distinction. Its UNESCO inscription concerns the skills and knowledge associated with its production in Côte d’Ivoire. The separate geographical-indication process pursued through the African Intellectual Property Organization concerns the product’s geographical origin and production specifications.

One mechanism safeguards living cultural heritage. The other may provide legal and commercial protection for the identity of a product.

Neither mechanism should be interpreted as giving a government ownership of all cultural knowledge connected to a tradition. The communities that practise and transmit the heritage must remain central.

The Five UNESCO Inscription Criteria

A nomination to the Representative List must satisfy five formal criteria.

R.1: The Element Must Qualify as Intangible Cultural Heritage

The nominated element must be a living practice that the communities concerned recognise as part of their heritage. It must contribute to their identity and continuity and be transmitted between generations.

For a culinary tradition, this may include:

cultivation and harvesting;
processing and preservation;
preparation techniques;
specialised utensils;
oral knowledge;
serving practices;
rituals and ceremonies;
communal eating customs;
environmental knowledge.

The dish is therefore only the visible outcome of a much wider cultural system.

R.2: Inscription Must Increase Visibility and Encourage Dialogue

The nomination must demonstrate that inscription would increase awareness of intangible cultural heritage, encourage dialogue and show respect for cultural diversity and human creativity.

This criterion helps explain why UNESCO focuses on the social and cultural systems surrounding food rather than simply its popularity.

R.3: Safeguarding Measures Must Be Proposed

The nominating state and participating communities must identify practical measures that will support continued practice and transmission.

These may include:

community workshops;
apprenticeships;
family and intergenerational teaching;
school programmes;
festivals and exhibitions;
oral-history recording;
audiovisual documentation;
digital archives;
research;
support for farmers, processors and practitioners.

Safeguarding should help communities continue practising and adapting their heritage. It should not turn a living tradition into an unchanging museum exhibit.

R.4: Communities Must Participate and Give Consent

The nomination must be prepared with the widest possible participation of the communities, groups and individuals concerned.

They must provide their free, prior and informed consent. Governments, academics and commercial organisations should not nominate or represent community heritage without meaningful involvement from its practitioners.

R.5: The Element Must Be Included in a National Inventory

Before international nomination, the tradition must appear in an official inventory of intangible cultural heritage maintained by the nominating state or states.

This requires countries to identify and document their living heritage at national level before seeking international inscription.

How the UNESCO Nomination Process Works

Only states that are parties to the 2003 Convention may submit formal nominations. However, the process should begin with communities rather than government officials acting alone.

A typical nomination involves:

identifying the tradition with its practitioners;
documenting its contemporary cultural meaning;
including it in a national intangible-heritage inventory;
gathering evidence about its transmission and social functions;
consulting community members;
obtaining free, prior and informed consent;
developing realistic safeguarding measures;
preparing and submitting the nomination dossier;
evaluation by UNESCO’s specialist mechanisms;
a decision by the Intergovernmental Committee.

The complete process can take several years. A professionally written application is not sufficient by itself. The nomination must demonstrate that communities recognise the element as their heritage and have helped to shape its safeguarding plans.

Multinational nominations are encouraged when traditions are shared across borders. The joint nomination of couscous by Algeria, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia is an important African example.

Nsima – Malawi, 2017

Nsima is both the name of a thick maize-flour preparation and a wider Malawian culinary tradition. Its cultural significance includes growing and storing maize, processing it into flour, selecting accompanying foods, preparing and serving the meal and observing associated communal customs.

UNESCO describes Nsima as an elaborate culinary process requiring particular knowledge and skills. Its preparation and consumption are closely connected to Malawian family and community life.

The process may involve:

cultivating and harvesting maize;
drying and storing the crop;
pounding or milling it into flour;
sifting the flour;
judging the correct proportions of water and maize flour;
stirring the mixture to achieve the appropriate texture;
selecting and preparing accompanying relishes;
serving and eating communally.

Certain mealtime customs promote cleanliness, moderation and cohesion. Eating together can strengthen relationships between relatives, neighbours and community members (UNESCO, 2017).

Why Nsima Was Recognised

Nsima demonstrates that intangible heritage does not need to be rare, luxurious or ceremonial. Its importance lies in the knowledge and relationships embedded in an everyday practice.

The inscription recognises:

practical knowledge acquired through observation;
family and communal participation;
the relationship between maize cultivation and Malawian life;
mealtime customs;
intergenerational transmission;
the role of the meal in strengthening social bonds.

Communities safeguard Nsima through continued practice, festivals, publications, education and workplace learning.

Historical descriptions of the tradition sometimes assign different responsibilities to girls and boys. These descriptions should be understood as records of practices documented during nomination rather than as fixed expectations for every Malawian household today. Intangible heritage changes as communities and social relationships change.

Research on intangible-cultural-heritage bearers emphasises that practitioners are not passive custodians. They possess accumulated knowledge, judgement and social skills that are developed through repeated practice and community participation (Zhao et al., 2022).

Couscous – Algeria, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia, 2020

Couscous has deep roots in Amazigh and wider North African history. Its precise geographical origin and earliest date remain debated, but written evidence confirms a long history in the region.

Algeria, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia submitted a joint nomination, and the element was inscribed in 2020.

UNESCO recognised the knowledge, know-how and practices associated with the production and consumption of couscous rather than one standardised recipe (UNESCO, 2020a).

The tradition may include:

growing and processing cereals;
grinding grain into semolina;
hand-rolling the semolina;
steaming it in stages;
preparing vegetables, meats, fish or other accompaniments;
using specialised tools and serving vessels;
preparing the food for family, religious and community occasions;
transmitting songs, gestures and oral expressions connected to preparation.

Why Couscous Was Recognised

Couscous is both an everyday food and a meal associated with important social occasions. It can be served during family gatherings, weddings, religious events, festivals and acts of hospitality.

There are many regional, family and community variations. The grain, accompaniments, seasonings, preparation techniques and serving practices may differ according to climate, geography, livelihood and local history.

This diversity is part of the heritage. UNESCO did not recognise a single authentic recipe. It recognised a living cultural system that connects production, preparation, sharing and identity.

Women have historically played a central role in preparing couscous and transmitting its technical and symbolic knowledge. This includes not only cooking techniques but also gestures, oral expressions and the organisation of collective work.

A study involving 517 women who prepared couscous through traditional methods in seven regions of north-eastern Algeria identified significant variation in preparation and consumption. This supports the understanding of couscous as a diverse and evolving tradition rather than a standardised product (Chemache et al., 2018).

The joint nomination also demonstrated how countries can cooperate to recognise heritage that crosses modern national borders.

Ceebu Jën – Senegal, 2021

Ceebu Jën, frequently known internationally as Thieboudienne, means “rice and fish” in Wolof. The tradition is particularly associated with the fishing communities of Saint-Louis, although it is prepared throughout Senegal in regional and family variations.

Typical ingredients may include:

fish;
broken rice;
dried seafood;
tomatoes;
onions;
garlic;
chilli;
cassava;
cabbage;
carrots;
aubergines;
okra;
sweet potatoes;
other seasonal vegetables.

The quality of the fish and choice of vegetables may reflect the importance of an occasion or the affection shown to a guest (UNESCO, 2021a).

A widely repeated oral account links the development of Ceebu Jën to Penda Mbaye, a nineteenth-century cook associated with Saint-Louis. This story is culturally significant but should not be presented as conclusively established historical fact.

Why Ceebu Jën Was Recognised

UNESCO recognised the culinary art and associated practices rather than only the combination of rice and fish.

The heritage encompasses:

ingredient selection;
fish preparation;
seasoning;
knowledge of cooking order and timing;
arranging the communal serving bowl;
hospitality;
family transmission;
social rules governing communal eating;
expressions of Senegalese identity.

The tradition has historically been transmitted mainly through women, although men increasingly participate as cooks and practitioners.

Children learn by observing, assisting and gradually assuming greater responsibilities. The shared meal becomes a setting for learning behaviour, relationships and social responsibility.

The UNESCO nomination also recorded customs associated with communal eating. These should be presented as part of the documented tradition rather than as universal rules followed identically in every Senegalese household.

The inscription recognised Ceebu Jën as a powerful expression of belonging and Senegalese identity. However, UNESCO’s decision also drew attention to possible risks associated with excessive tourism and commercialisation.

International recognition can create economic opportunity, but it can also:

encourage simplified versions presented as the only authentic form;
transfer economic value to businesses outside the practising communities;
place pressure on ingredients and local food systems;
separate the product from its cultural and social context.

Safeguarding must therefore protect community participation and benefit, not merely promote sales.

Attiéké – Côte d’Ivoire, 2024

Attiéké is produced from cassava through a demanding sequence of cultivation, preparation, fermentation and steaming.

The knowledge is particularly associated with the lagoon communities of Côte d’Ivoire. Production commonly involves:

growing and harvesting cassava;
peeling and washing the roots;
grinding or crushing them;
combining the material with fermented cassava;
fermenting the mixture;
pressing out moisture;
sieving and granulating it;
partially drying the grains;
steaming the prepared semolina;
preserving, serving or selling the final product.

The process requires experience. Producers must judge fermentation, moisture, grain size, texture and steaming without relying only on written measurements.

Why Attiéké Was Recognised

The inscription recognises the production knowledge, family transmission, cultural identity and community livelihoods associated with Attiéké.

Women traditionally play a leading role in processing, preparing, preserving and selling it. Men have often participated in cultivating, harvesting, transporting and mechanically grinding cassava, although responsibilities vary and continue to change.

Knowledge is passed orally and through observation and repeated practice. Mastery can provide women and girls with:

income;
economic independence;
social recognition;
entry into food enterprise;
participation in producer networks.

UNESCO’s description explicitly connects safeguarding with women’s financial autonomy and social integration (UNESCO, 2024).

However, formal recognition does not guarantee economic empowerment. Producers may still face:

limited access to finance;
inadequate machinery;
physically demanding work;
unstable cassava prices;
weak bargaining power;
industrial imitation;
difficulty entering larger markets;
limited influence over branding and distribution.

Effective safeguarding should protect both the knowledge and the economic interests of the communities carrying it.

Attiéké’s separate geographical-indication process should not be confused with UNESCO inscription. The geographical indication concerns product origin and commercial standards. UNESCO recognises the living production skills and social practices.

Koshary – Egypt, 2025

Koshary is a widely available Egyptian meal commonly combining:

rice;
pasta;
lentils;
chickpeas;
fried onions;
tomato sauce;
garlic;
vinegar;
chilli or hot sauce.

It is prepared in homes, specialist restaurants, street-food businesses and other everyday settings. Although its general identity is widely recognised, household and regional variations exist.

The element was inscribed on UNESCO’s Representative List in 2025. UNESCO describes it as a filling and affordable meal enjoyed by people of different ages, genders and backgrounds in rural, urban and coastal communities (UNESCO, 2025).

Why Koshary Was Recognised

The inscription concerns the everyday practices associated with preparing, serving and eating Koshary.

Knowledge is transmitted through:

family observation;
participation in home preparation;
street vendors;
restaurants;
culinary training;
television;
social media;
professional food businesses.

Koshary’s recognition challenges the idea that heritage must be ancient, elite, expensive or ceremonial. An affordable urban meal can also carry shared memory, practical knowledge, social connection and national identity.

The tradition brings people from different social and economic backgrounds into contact with a widely recognised form of everyday Egyptian food.

Historical nomination materials refer to family transmission, including teaching from mothers to daughters. This should be understood as one documented route of transmission rather than a rule limiting preparation to women.

Koshary became Egypt’s first UNESCO inscription centred explicitly on a named dish.

Why These Traditions Matter to African Diaspora Communities in Britain

For African diaspora communities, food can be one of the most durable connections between life in Britain and family histories elsewhere.

Traditional foods may carry:

memories of parents and grandparents;
knowledge of communities and regions of origin;
relationships with relatives abroad;
languages and ingredient names;
religious and ceremonial meanings;
practical knowledge learned through observation;
opportunities for younger people to explore identity;
a sense of continuity in a changing environment.

Migration does not simply reproduce food traditions unchanged. Families may adapt recipes because certain ingredients are unavailable, expensive or different in Britain.

Other influences include:

working hours;
housing and kitchen conditions;
family size;
access to African food shops;
household income;
dietary requirements;
environmental concerns;
health advice;
relationships with other communities.

These adaptations do not necessarily represent cultural loss. They can show how living heritage responds creatively to a new environment.

Research examining the dietary experiences of African migrant women in the UK found that food practices were shaped by cultural beliefs, family expectations, access to appropriate ingredients and the practical realities of migration. Food can therefore become both a source of belonging and an area of negotiation between continuity, affordability, convenience and health (Ngongalah et al., 2023).

Research on migration and food also shows that collective food activity can connect communities with both their places of origin and the societies in which they now live. Cooking projects, restaurants, festivals and community meals may create spaces for identity, dialogue and social participation (Arcadu et al., 2025).

Evidence from the Enfield African Heritage Food Project

Approximately 20 anonymised oral-history interviews were undertaken through the Enfield African Heritage Food Project between June 2025 and May 2026.

Participants gave informed consent for their contributions to be used for public educational purposes. The interview records are held by Diversity Rights.

Across the interviews, contributors frequently described African food as a source of:

memory;
emotional connection;
family identity;
cultural belonging;
intergenerational learning;
connection with places and relatives outside Britain;
pride in African knowledge and creativity.

Several participants explained that they learned through watching parents, grandparents and experienced community cooks rather than by following written recipes.

They recalled recognising readiness through:

texture;
smell;
sound;
colour;
movement;
the resistance of a mixture during stirring;
the judgement of an experienced cook.

Cooking traditional dishes in Britain also helped some participants introduce younger family members to relatives, languages and places they had never encountered directly.

These lived experiences demonstrate why audiovisual recording, community demonstrations and oral histories are necessary. A written ingredients list cannot fully capture knowledge held in movement, sensory judgement, memory and repeated practice.

The project’s interview evidence should be presented as qualitative community testimony rather than as statistically representative research about all African residents of Enfield or Britain.

Challenges in Safeguarding African Culinary Heritage

Unequal Access to UNESCO Nomination

Preparing a nomination requires:

government commitment;
trained heritage staff;
national inventories;
documentation;
community consultation;
research;
administrative resources;
long-term safeguarding plans.

Countries with stronger cultural institutions may be better positioned to complete this process.

The relatively small number of named African culinary traditions on the Representative List should not therefore be interpreted as evidence that Africa has fewer significant food traditions. It partly reflects unequal access to heritage documentation and nomination mechanisms.

Weakening Intergenerational Transmission

Young people may value their heritage but have fewer opportunities to learn time-intensive preparation methods.

Migration, education, employment, smaller households and changing family structures may reduce the time available for observation and practice.

When an experienced practitioner dies without passing on their knowledge, communities may lose:

preparation techniques;
ingredient knowledge;
local terminology;
ceremonial meanings;
environmental knowledge;
stories associated with the food.

Environmental and Climate Pressures

Climate change may affect the availability, affordability and quality of maize, cassava, fish, cereals and traditional vegetables.

Safeguarding food heritage must therefore include:

sustainable agriculture;
protection of fisheries;
biodiversity;
locally appropriate crop varieties;
climate-resilient production;
support for small-scale producers.

A recipe cannot remain culturally viable if the ecological system supporting its ingredients collapses.

Commercialisation Without Community Benefit

UNESCO recognition can increase tourism, restaurant demand and product sales. However, external businesses may capture much of the value while traditional practitioners receive little benefit.

Responsible commercial development should include:

fair attribution;
appropriate payment;
producer participation;
transparent sourcing;
community influence over representation;
investment in safeguarding;
protection against misleading imitation.

The Risk of Freezing Tradition

Recognition can create pressure to identify one version as the authentic recipe.

This may marginalise:

regional variations;
family methods;
minority-community practices;
contemporary adaptations;
diaspora interpretations.

Safeguarding should preserve cultural meaning and transmission without preventing communities from adapting their heritage.

Health and Nutrition Misrepresentation

African foods are sometimes discussed through broad stereotypes, either as automatically healthy because they are traditional or as unhealthy because particular versions contain starch, salt, oil or fried ingredients.

A more responsible approach considers:

portion size;
preparation method;
accompaniments;
ingredient quality;
frequency of consumption;
an individual’s health needs;
the wider cultural and dietary context.

Heritage recognition should not be used to make unsupported medical claims.

Opportunities for Communities and Heritage Organisations

UNESCO recognition can support practical community action when it is used responsibly.

Important opportunities include:

recording oral histories with experienced cooks and producers;
creating community-controlled digital archives;
organising intergenerational cooking workshops;
incorporating African culinary heritage into school learning;
producing high-quality educational videos;
training young people in food documentation;
supporting women-led food enterprises;
connecting diaspora communities with practitioners in African countries;
documenting family and regional variations;
developing ethical cultural tourism;
supporting multinational nominations;
linking heritage safeguarding with environmental sustainability.

The Enfield African Heritage Food Project contributes to this work through oral histories, community cooking, recipe documentation, videos, exhibitions and educational resources.

Its value lies not only in recording what people eat but also in documenting how people learned, what the food means to them and how knowledge changes after migration.

Future Trends and Outlook

African culinary heritage is likely to receive greater international attention. Several developments are particularly important.

More Multinational Nominations

Food systems, ethnic communities and ecological regions often predate modern national borders. Future nominations may increasingly involve cooperation between countries that share culinary knowledge.

Community-Led Digital Documentation

Video, audio, photography and digital archives can record details that written recipes miss. Communities will increasingly expect to control how this material is stored, interpreted and used.

Stronger Links with Climate Resilience

Safeguarding plans are likely to give greater attention to agriculture, water, fisheries, biodiversity and climate adaptation.

Greater Diaspora Participation

Diaspora communities do not simply reproduce traditions imported from another country. They create new patterns of adaptation, teaching and community participation.

Their contribution to safeguarding may include:

oral histories;
youth education;
exhibitions;
food festivals;
online archives;
research partnerships;
cross-border community networks.

Closer Scrutiny of Commercial Benefit

As the economic value of heritage recognition grows, communities are likely to demand clearer answers about:

who owns brands;
who receives income;
who controls cultural representation;
who benefits from tourism;
whether producers are paid fairly.

Development of the International Food Atlas

UNESCO’s International Food Atlas and Digital Platform aims to develop knowledge and interactive tools for documenting, safeguarding and transmitting foodways as living heritage. The project also seeks to strengthen the inclusion of food-related cultural knowledge in public policy.

International platforms can increase visibility, but they should complement rather than replace community ownership.

Conclusion

The recognition of Nsima, Couscous, Ceebu Jën, Attiéké and Koshary demonstrates that African culinary heritage extends far beyond dishes and ingredients.

It encompasses:

cultivation;
processing;
practical skill;
sensory judgement;
family relationships;
social customs;
hospitality;
identity;
memory;
environmental knowledge;
methods of teaching.

UNESCO inscription can increase visibility and encourage safeguarding, but recognition alone is not enough. Communities require practical support to transmit their knowledge, respond to environmental pressures and benefit fairly from commercial interest.

For African communities in Britain, culinary heritage provides an accessible connection between generations, places and identities. Community cooking, oral histories, exhibitions and digital recordings can help younger people encounter these traditions as living knowledge rather than as recipes isolated from their cultural context.

The central task is not simply to place more African foods on an international list. It is to ensure that the people who cultivate, prepare, teach and share these traditions continue to control their representation and shape their future.

Frequently Asked Questions

Does UNESCO Recognise Dishes or Cultural Practices?

UNESCO recognises living cultural practices: the knowledge, skills, preparation methods, communal customs and social meanings associated with a culinary tradition. It does not certify a commercial product or one official recipe.

Which African Culinary Traditions Are Recognised by UNESCO?

Prominent inscriptions centred on named foods include Nsima from Malawi, Couscous from Algeria, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia, Ceebu Jën from Senegal, Attiéké from Côte d’Ivoire and Koshary from Egypt. Other African UNESCO elements also involve farming, drinks, hospitality and food-related knowledge.

How Does a Food Tradition Qualify for UNESCO Recognition?

It must satisfy five criteria covering:

its status as living intangible cultural heritage;
its contribution to visibility and cultural dialogue;
proposed safeguarding measures;
community participation and consent;
inclusion in a national heritage inventory.

Can a Community Apply Directly to UNESCO?

A community cannot ordinarily submit a formal nomination independently. A state party to the 2003 Convention submits the file. However, community participation and free, prior and informed consent are mandatory.

Does UNESCO Recognition Give a Country Ownership of a Dish?

No. UNESCO inscription does not create copyright, trademark protection or exclusive national ownership. Separate legal mechanisms are required to protect commercial names or geographical indications.

What Is the Difference Between UNESCO Recognition and a Geographical Indication?

UNESCO recognises living cultural practices and community knowledge. A geographical indication is a legal and commercial mechanism connecting a product with a defined geographical origin and production specification.

Why Are Relatively Few African Culinary Traditions Inscribed?

The nomination process requires institutional capacity, national inventories, specialist staff, documentation and long-term government support. Unequal access to these resources can leave many significant traditions underrepresented.

Can African Diaspora Communities Help Safeguard Food Heritage?

Yes. Diaspora communities can:

record oral histories;
organise cooking workshops;
support intergenerational teaching;
document adaptation;
create digital archives;
organise exhibitions;
collaborate with practitioners in countries of origin.

Does Safeguarding Mean That Recipes Cannot Change?

No. Intangible heritage is living and continually recreated. Safeguarding should support transmission and community ownership while allowing regional, family and diaspora variations to develop.

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